Testing of construction materials is carried out from the beginning to the end of the works. Some materials are tested before construction begins and others are tested during construction. Depending on the applicability of the materials, tests are carried out to check the suitability of the material for construction and tests are also carried out to check whether the material used has reached its strength.
The following list shows the 27 building materials tests.
- Sieve analysis
- Hydrometer analysis
- Determination of moisture content
- Atterberg Border (LL, PL, SL)
- specific weight
- Bulk density/unit weight
- Source Index Test
- Proctor compression (standard, mod.)
- CBR Test
- Permeability test (constant pressure/decreasing pressure)
- Lugeon Test
- Soil organic content
- Unconsolidated and undrained three-shaft compression test
- Uniaxial Compression Test
- CBR Field Test
- Consolidation Test
- Total Reduction Value (ACV)
- Fines of 10% of the aggregate
- Overall Impact Value (AIV)
- Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAAV)
- Specific gravity of aggregates
- Aggregate water absorption
- Scalability Index
- Elongation Index
- Field Density Test
- Uniaxial compression test in rock
- Rock point load resistance index
- Non-destructive hammer testing on concrete
- Compressive strength tests on concrete cubes/paving stones/hollow stones
- Brick Compressive Strength Test
Construction Materials Testing Overview
Sieve analysis as a construction material test
Particle size analysis occurs in three steps
Sieve analysis is a method of classifying construction materials such as sand, quarry dust, etc. Particle size distribution is determined by this test as a construction requirement. For example, when filter materials are selected in dam construction, the particle size distribution of the selected material must be within the specified range.
Soil classification involves categorizing soil according to its technical behavior. Knowledge of soil gradation is very important so that designers can evaluate the behavior of the material. Furthermore, tests must be carried out to verify the technical properties of the material.
A sieve analysis test determines the percentage of different grain size distributions. The sieve analysis test is used to determine the particle size distribution of coarse and fine aggregates, and hydrographic analysis, discussed below, is used to categorize finer particles.
Equipment: scale, sieve set, cleaning brush and sieve shaker
Hydrometer analysis
Using a hydrographic analysis, the size distribution of the finest soil particles can be determined. The physical process of sedimentation is used for hydrographic analysis. Grain size distribution is very important for design, and knowledge of the exact distribution can be used for optimized design.
Furthermore, sieve analysis may not provide correct results for fine-grained soils because fine-grained soil consists of fine particles ranging from 0.075 mm to 0.0002 mm. Using such small sieves is not practical and there is a high probability of material loss during sieving.
Equipment: mixer, hydrometer, sedimentation cylinder, control cylinder, thermometer, beaker, timing device
Atterberg limits as a test of construction materials
Atterberg limits are the measure of fine-grained soil water content and a widely used test method for building materials made from clayey soils. Three limits are taken into account in the definition.
- Shrinkage Limit (SL)
- Plastic Limit (PL)
- Liquidity limit (LL)
Depending on the water content, soil behaves in four phases: solid, semisolid, plastic and liquid. Each soil phase behaves differently and the technical properties are also different. Therefore, the boundaries of the four phases are defined as SL, PL and LL, as shown in the following figure.
shrinkage limit
The limit at which the solid state of clay changes from solid to semisolid is called the shrinkage limit. It is also defined as the water content at which further loss of moisture does not result in further reduction in volume.
Shrinkage limit is tested in accordance with ASTM D4943.
Plasticity limit
The plastic limit is tested by unwinding a thread of the soil fraction found on a flat, non-porous surface in accordance with ASTM D4318.
The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content at which the wire breaks with a diameter of 3.2 mm. A floor is considered non-plastic if a thread cannot be unwound to 3.2 mm at any possible humidity level.
liquidity limit
The yield point is the water content at which the behavior of clay soil changes from the plastic state to the liquid state.
The yield point can be determined using the Casagrande cup method or a conical penetrometer.
specific weight
Soil specific gravity is defined as the unit weight of the soil mass divided by the unit weight of distilled water at 4°C.
Specific gravity is determined using a pycnometer.
Equipment: Volumetric flask pycnometer, vacuum pump, mortar and pestle, 0.01 g weight scale and thermometer.
Bulk density of the soil
Bulk density is also known as dry density and is an indicator of soil compaction.
The calculation is made by dividing the dry density of the soil by the volume of the soil.
Bulk density can be determined according to guidelines from the Soil Quality website .
Standard Proctor Compaction Test as Construction Material Test
The Proctor compaction test is a testing method used to experimentally determine the optimum moisture content at which a soil achieves its greatest density and reaches its maximum dry density. The original test is most commonly referred to as the standard Proctor compression test and later updated to a modified Proctor compression test.
According to Proctor, soil compaction depends on the following factors.
- Soil type
- Moisture content
- Compaction effort
- Soil dry density
Regarding testing procedures, references may be made to the following standards:
- AASHOT: T99-86
- ASTM: d698-91
- BS1377: Part 4
Guidance can be found on the website “ Civil Research For more information see “”.
CBR Test as a Construction Material Testing Method
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is used to evaluate the strength of subgrades to determine subgrade thickness and its properties in road and pavement construction.
This is a penetration test and one of the most commonly used test methods to evaluate substrate strength. These test values are used to determine the pavement thickness based on the empirical curves developed. This is the most commonly used method for designing flexible decking.
CBR can be defined as follows.
CBR = (P/P S ) 100%
Where,
P – Pressure measured at the point where we need the CBR
P S – Pressure to achieve uniform penetration into standard floors
There are two types of CBR values: soaked and unsaturated CBR values. The harder the surface, the higher the CBR value.
Permeability Test as Construction Material Test
The ability of water to infiltrate the soil is measured in the permeability test. Knowing soil permeability is very important in hydraulic projects, as it can cause erosion even in a dam. Additionally, there are limitations that must be considered when designing based on project specifications.
There are two methods to assess soil permeability
- Constant pressure test
- Head drop test
Soil permeability is indicated by the permeability coefficient (k). There are many reasons to know soil permeability.
- Permeability influences the settlement of saturated soil under load
- The construction of earthen dams depends largely on the permeability of the soil used.
- The design of the clay core of rock-fill dams also strongly depends on the permeability of the clay used.
- The stability of embankments and support structures depends on soil permeability
- Earth filters are based on permeability
- Rockfill filters are also designed for permeability
- When planning drainage in high dams, knowledge of soil permeability is important.
Hydraulic conductivity is also known as permeability. Soil permeability depends on the following factors
- The viscosity of the liquid
- Bulk size distribution
- Grain size distribution
- Empty rations
- Degree of soil saturation
Constant pressure test – permeability test
- Suitable for coarse-grained soils
- The test is performed for laminar soil; k is the independence of the hydraulic gradient
- Testing is performed in accordance with ASTM D2434
Drop test – permeability test
- Suitable for coarse-grained soils and fine-grained soils
- The same procedure as the constant pressure permeability test is used
Lugeon Test
The Lugeon test is an in situ test used to estimate the average hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass.
The Lugeon test measures the amount of water injected into a section of a well under constant pressure. The value is defined as the water loss in liters per minute and per meter of hole at an overpressure of 1 MPa.
The Lugeon coefficient is often used to determine rock condition. The Lugeon coefficient is by definition the water absorption, measured in liters per meter of test phase per minute at a pressure of 10 kg/cm 2 .
The following equation can be used to calculate the Lugeon value.
Lugeon value = (q/L) x (P 0 /P)
Where,
q – flow rate (liters/minutes)
L – Length of well test interval (m)
P 0 – Reference pressure of 1 MPa
P – test pressure (MPa)
Typical rock values can be given as follows. However, these values must be verified during construction according to project requirements.
| Lugeon Value | Conductivity classification | State of discontinuity of the rock |
| <1 | Very low | Too tight |
| 1-5 | Low | Closely |
| 5-15 | Moderate | Few partially open |
| 15-50 | Average | Some open |
| 50-100 | High | Many open |
| >100 | Very high | Open, closely spaced, or hollow spaces |
In construction, especially in dam construction, infiltration must be controlled as it can lead to serious problems, as described in the permeability test.
Therefore, it is very important for designers and the construction team to know the permeability of the rock to minimize water penetration.
There are also cracks in the rock and water infiltration is inevitable if it remains as it is. Therefore, it needs to be controlled. Based on the design parameters and in accordance with the design specification, a Lugeon value must be maintained during construction.
Cracks in the rock are sealed using injections. Based on the well surveys carried out for the project, holes are drilled to the depths specified in the project.
After grouting, a hole is drilled and samples are taken at the depths where Lugeon values need to be checked. Samples are tested to Lugeon values and compared to design values to determine if they meet requirements. If the values are not met, new pressure must be applied. The process is repeated until the values are reached.
Soil organic content
Organic matter is the most complex, dynamic and reactive component of soil. The organic matter content of the soil influences the physical properties of the soil and its chemical reactivity.
Even more damaging, it affects the compressibility and shear strength of the soil. The shear strength of the soil is a very important factor when constructing a shallow foundation. Low shear strengths can lead to failure of foundation systems.
Furthermore, soil organic content influences water storage capacity, biological activities, and water and air infiltration rates.
Soil organic content is determined according to ASTM D2974 .
The organic matter content is expressed as a percentage of the ratio between the mass of organic content and the mass of dry soil.
The test is performed by heating the soil sample to a temperature of approximately 440°C. 0 C to burn organic matter. If the initial dry soil weight (Wd) and the burned soil weight (Wb) are known, the organic content can be calculated as follows.
Organic content = ((Wd – Wb) / Wd) x 100%
Triaxial compression test as a construction material testing method
There are three triaxial tests.
- Unconsolidated and undrained three-shaft compression test
- Consolidated triaxial compression test for drains
- Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Compression Test
Advantages of triaxial testing
- Casting pressure and volume change can be measured directly
- The stress distribution in the fracture plane is uniform
- The test is appropriate accurate studies
- Sample may fail at weaker levels
Disadvantages of triaxial testing
- The device is expensive
Unconsolidated and undrained three-shaft compression test
The triaxial test is carried out to evaluate the mechanical properties of soils such as soil, rocks and other granular materials. The compressive strength of soil is measured in relation to the total tension.
ASTM states: “This test method determines the compressive strength of a floor based on total tension. Therefore, the resulting resistance depends on the pressure created in the pore fluid during loading. This test method does not allow fluid flow to or into the soil sample when the load is applied. Therefore, the resulting pore pressure and therefore resistance differs from that which arises in the case of possible drainage.”
The test is performed by exposing a saturated sample to limited fluid pressure in a triaxial cell.
Basically, three samples are tested and these are subjected to different tensions at the edges.
Testing is performed in accordance with ASTM D2850-15.
When using the tested starches, the following must be taken into account:
- Undrained, unconsolidated resistance can be used in cases where loads are applied quickly without allowing sufficient time for irrigation water pressure to dissipate and consolidate during the loading period.
- In cases where the loading conditions are significantly different from the test conditions, undrained loose strength cannot be applied.
CBR Field Test
The CBR test is performed to evaluate the strength of substrate materials. This test is performed on site as an in situ test. This is a very common testing method for construction materials because it is comparatively easy to perform.
The penetration curve is recorded and CBR values are calculated according to laboratory values.
Consolidation Test
Consolidation is a process of gradual change in soil volume in response to changes in pressure.
In general, soils consist of soil grains and irrigation water. When a load is applied to the soil, the irrigation water first absorbs the pressure without changing its volume, creating excessive irrigation water pressure. Due to the high pressure, the water moves away to relieve the pressure while the pressure is gradually transferred to the ground. The soil absorbs the change in pressure and its volume decreases. This process is called consolidation.
Consolidation is a time-dependent process that can take a long time, up to 100 years .
Therefore, it is very important for foundation and structural planning to know the settlement criteria due to consolidation. Consolidation rate and overall consolidation are important for planning.
Most of the time the tone is subject to a consolidation setting.
There are two types of consolidometers to check consolidation
- Floating ring
- Fixed ring
Consolidation tests may be performed in accordance with ASTM D2435.
Two types of consolidation are considered in geotechnical planning.
- Primary consolidation
- Secondary consolidation
Primary consolidation
In clayey and silty inorganic soils, primary consolidation settlement is more important than secondary consolidation settlement. However, secondary consolidation settlement is more important in organic soils.
This method assumes that consolidation is one-dimensional.
Secondary consolidation
At the end of primary consolidation (after the excess pressure from the irrigation water has dissipated), some adjustment can be observed, which is due to the plastic adjustment of the soil structures. This solidification phase is called secondary solidification.
Creep, viscous behavior of the clay-water system, compression of organic matter and other processes lead to settlement through secondary consolidation.
Although the secondary compaction of sand is insignificant, peat, as a soil with a very high organic content, has a significant impact on settlement.
Total reduction value (ACV)
Aggregate fracture value is a relative measure of an aggregate's resistance to fracture under a gradually applied compressive load.
It is defined as the weight percentage of crushed material obtained when test aggregates are subjected to a given load under stabilized conditions.
The strength of the aggregate material used in road construction is expressed by a numerical index.
Aggregates with lower crushing values have longer service lives.
In road construction, aggregates with lower compressive strength are used to achieve longer service life and more economical performance. If weak aggregates with a higher pressure value were used, they would break under the load of road traffic and form smaller pieces, which would lead to the binder debonding.
Testing may be carried out in accordance with BS 812: Part 3.
There is no clear relationship between the crushing value of the aggregate and its compressive strength. However, the refractive index is higher with lower compressive strength. According to BS 812: Part 3 the maximum value for aggregates in structural concrete is 30 and for lean concrete 40.
With a crush value of 25 to 30, the test is insensitive because the weaker material is crushed before the load of 400 kN is reached and compacted in such a way that further reduced comminution is possible. For such materials there is a ten percent fine value test proposed by BS:812, Part 3.
Fines of 10% of the aggregate
The crushing value for 10% fine aggregate is the load required to crush a prepared sample of aggregate so that 10% of the material passes through a 2.36 mm sieve (ASTM #8).
The 10% fineness value is a measure of the crushing resistance of rock grains under load and applies to both weak and strong rock grains. Fine aggregate grains are those that can pass through a 2.36 mm sieve.
10% = weight of fine aggregates / weight of all aggregates
In contrast to the standard compression test, this test has a high numerical value. The result indicates greater strength of the aggregate.
BS 882:1983 specifies a minimum rating of 150 kN for aggregates for use in reinforced concrete floors, 100 kN for Aggregates for use in wearing surfaces of concrete pavements and 50 kN when used in other concretes.
Overall Impact Value (AIV)
As the vehicle moves on the road, the aggregates are subject to impacts, which cause them to break into smaller pieces. Aggregates must therefore be strong enough to resist decomposition due to impact. This property is measured using the impact value test.
The aggregate impact value represents a relative measure of an aggregate's resistance to sudden shocks or impacts, which may be different from its resistance to gradually applied compressive loads.
It is the percentage of fines produced from the total sample after it has been subjected to a standard impact load.
A value below 10 is considered strong, while a value above 35 is generally considered too weak for use on road surfaces. The impact and crushing values of the aggregates are often numerically very similar and indicate similar strength properties of the aggregate.
The impact resistance test is considered an important test to assess the suitability of aggregates in terms of their toughness for use in road construction.
Testing can be carried out in accordance with BS 812
Some typical values used to categorize the aggregate are as follows.
| Overall impact value | classification |
| <10% | Exceptionally strong |
| 10-20% | Strong |
| 10-30% | Satisfactory for road surfaces |
| >35% | Poor for road surfaces |
Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAAV)
The Los Angeles Abrasion Value test is a measure of aggregates' toughness and resistance to abrasion, such as crushing, degradation and disintegration.
The Los Angeles abrasion value method is widely used to determine abrasion characteristics and to classify granular materials used in road and highway construction. The abrasion resistance of materials can significantly influence the service life of road surfaces under long-term dynamic traffic loads.
As vehicles travel on the road, they come into contact with surface aggregates and abrasion can occur. Therefore, aggregates used in road construction must have sufficient abrasion resistance.
Testing may be conducted in accordance with ASTM C 131: Resistance to Degradation of Small-Grained Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.
The Los Angeles abrasion test is designed to produce an abrasive effect through the use of standard steel balls which, when mixed with aggregates and rotated in a drum for a specified time at a specified number of rotations, also produce an effect on the aggregates. . The percentage of wear due to relative friction between the aggregate and the steel balls is determined and called the Los Angeles abrasion value.
Los Angeles Abrasion Value = (Original weight – Retained weight in #12) / Original weight
This testing method has several disadvantages.
- The time required to complete the test
- Operating noise and
- Dust generated during testing
- The space required by the machine
specific weight
Aggregate specific gravity is a measure of the density of the aggregate compared to the density of water at 23 0 C
Specific gravity is used in the calculations and is considered a measure of the quality of the aggregate. Aggregates with low specific gravity are considered weaker than those with higher specific gravity.
Specific gravity is tested in accordance with ASTM C127.
Aggregate water absorption
Coarse aggregate represents 40-80% of the concrete volume. Therefore, it is very important to study the behavior of coarse aggregate.
Water absorption of aggregates provides information about the internal structure of aggregates.
The greater the water absorption, the greater the porosity of the aggregate. This type of aggregate is not suitable for construction unless it is found to be acceptable in terms of hardness and impact testing.
Aggregates with water absorption in the range of 0.1% – 2% are typically used for road surfaces.
Testing can be performed in accordance with ASTM C127.
Scalability Index
Flaky particles are particles whose smallest dimension is 0.6 times smaller than the average particle size.
The maximum allowable proportion of flaky particles in the mixture is 30%. If it exceeds this value, it is considered unsuitable for construction
Flaky, elongated particles can have a detrimental effect on concrete and bitumen mixtures. Flaky, elongated particles tend to worsen the workability of concrete mixes, which can lead to long-term durability problems. In bituminous mixtures, flaky particles tend to crack and break during road construction.
The flakiness index is defined as the weight percentage of fluffy particles in a sample and is calculated by Report the weight of flaky particles as a percentage of the total weight of the sample.
Can be tested to BS812.
Knowing the flaking index and elongation index, which will be discussed below, is very important during the design and construction phases. It is the construction team's responsibility to check them and ensure they are within limits.
- The degree of compaction depends on the size and shape of the particles
- Hardwood and elongated particles are considered unsuitable for basic construction as they can lead to weak points under possible stress.
- The flake index is limited to 30% in accordance with BS 1241, regardless of aggregate size.
- The two tests, scaling and elongation, are not taken into account for particle sizes less than 6.3 mm
Elongation Index
The elongation index is defined as the content of elongated particles in the sample as a percentage of the total weight.
Elongated particles with a dimension greater than 1.8 times the other dimensions.
In general, an increase in flaky, elongated particles in a concrete mix due to increased surface area can make the mix more difficult to work with.
Elongated particles can be tested in accordance with BS 812.
Elongated particles are limited to 45% in the design, as any increase beyond this may result in undesirable mixing.
Field Density Test
To verify that the expected soil density has been achieved, the soil density must be tested on site.
Soil field density can be tested using the following methods
- Sand replacement method or sand cone method
- Core Cutter Method
- Field Density Test Water Replacement Method
- Rubber balloon method
- Heavy Oil Method
- Moisture and Density Measuring Device for Nuclear Power Plants
In construction, the sand replacement method is most often used. Dry density tests are carried out to check the compaction of the soil layers.
Testing can be performed in accordance with ASTM D446-82 or BS 1377 Part 4.
The test allows you to calculate and verify whether the compression is within the limits of the layer being tested.
Uniaxial compression test in rock
The unconfirmed compressive strength (UCS) of a rock is determined using the uniaxial compression test. This is a widely used testing method for construction materials that determines the load-bearing capacity of a rock based on correlations between materials.
Unconfirmed compressive strength (UCS) represents the maximum axial compressive stress that a specimen can withstand without additional stress.
Because tension is applied to the sample along its longitudinal axis, the uniaxial compression test is also called uniaxial compression test.
Uniaxial compressive strength is widely used in geotechnical projects because it provides a clear indication of rock strength.
During pile design and construction, the UCS value is taken into consideration to determine/specify the ultimate bearing capacity of the rock. There are diagrams that can be used to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of rock. In addition to the UCS value, other parameters such as fractures/discontinuities, faults and rock weathering are also taken into consideration in determining the ultimate bearing capacity for pile foundations.
The uniaxial compression test is a laboratory test and can be performed in accordance with ASTM D 7012.
Rock point load resistance index
The point load test is an index test used to determine the strength of rock. It is a popular testing method for pile construction materials.
The test can also be used to estimate other properties of intact rocks that it correlates with, such as compressive strength and uniaxial tension.
This is a simple test and does not require any particularly sophisticated equipment. Furthermore, the lower cost and time required compared to the uniaxial compression test with unrestricted force are additional advantages of the point load test.
The test can be performed in a laboratory or on site.
In the construction of piles, this test is very useful to get an idea of the strength of the rock, correlating it with the resistance to uniaxial compression. Pile termination or decision on embedment length can be made based on test results.
Non-destructive hammer testing on concrete
The rebound hammer test is known as the non-destructive hammer test. The name itself already reveals something about the test.
This test does not cause any harm or collect samples. The hardness of concrete is checked by the reflection of the hammer on the force applied to the concrete.
For more information about recovery hammer testing and other testing, see the article on the Non-Destructive Testing website.
Compressive strength test on concrete cubes/paving stones/hollow stones
The compressive strength of concrete, paving stones, hollow blocks, etc. is considered one of the main factors during planning. It forms the basis for final planning.
For example, the compressive strength of concrete is included in almost all equations considered for design. Resistance to bending, axial, tensile, shear, etc. depends on the characteristic strength of the concrete.
An inspection as a quality assurance measure is therefore of great importance during the construction phase.
Compressive strength is determined based on the type of material and test dates depend on the construction.
Concrete is tested after 7 days and 28 days. If the concrete gains strength slowly, this can also happen after 28 and 56 days. Properly molten cubes placed in a bath are tested. Approval of each concrete placement is based on the conformity criteria established in the relevant standard or specified in the specification.
Brick Compressive Strength Test
The test can be carried out on the same machine used to test the strength of concrete cubes.
In general, the characteristic strength of fired bricks is in the range of 5N/mm 2 – 10N/mm 2
Bricks are the most commonly used building material for walls. Furthermore, bricks are used as supporting elements in construction.
Testing can be performed in accordance with ASTM C67/C67M guidelines. Additionally, the same guideline applies to testing saturated clay tiles. Sampling procedures and test methods are specified in the standard. Additionally, additional checks can be performed using the same policy. Standard Test Method for Sampling and Testing of Bricks and Building Bricks For more information you can contact us.
