Recently, Indian space agency ISRO successfully landed a spacecraft at the lunar south pole. This makes India the first country to land a spacecraft in the challenging southern region of the Moon, where there is a high probability of finding ice and resources for future manned space missions into deep space. India aspires to send a manned mission to the Moon by 2025 as part of its Gaganyaan mission. In the new space race, China has already landed a spacecraft on the Moon in 2021 and also plans to send its first manned mission to the Moon by 2030.
A feat already achieved by the United States 50 years ago is now a new space race. The United States is again planning to return humans to the Moon, including the first woman and the first black person, by 2025, as part of its Artemis III mission. Although ISRO's Gaganyaan and NASA's Artemis III are independent space programs, ISRO and NASA signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) in 2020 for cooperation in lunar exploration with the intention of sharing information and knowledge on lunar science, exploration and spaceflight humans. The two nations, along with nearly 30 other nations, are signatories to the Artemis Accord, which agrees on a set of principles that ensure transparency, interoperability, emergency assistance and resource sharing in accordance with international law for lunar missions.
At the beginning of a new space era, it is worth remembering NASA's Apollo missions, which left a lasting legacy in the field of space exploration. The Apollo program is one of the greatest achievements in the history of human space technology. The program was a series of space missions conducted by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) from 1961 to 1972 with the goal of landing humans on the Moon and returning them safely to Earth. The program manifested itself just 2 years after the formation of NASA in 1958. A total of 17 missions were carried out under the space program. It was under the Apollo program that, in the Apollo 11 mission, the United States became the first nation to land humans on the Moon, and Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon. The program was a victory cry for the United States in a Cold War-era space race with the Soviet Union. Between 1969 and 1972, the United States sent 12 astronauts to the Moon and returned them safely to Earth.
Let's remember the Apollo missions and remember some details of the historic achievements of NASA and humanity.
Apollo missions overview
The Apollo program was launched during the Cold War era, when the United States and the Soviet Union competed with each other to demonstrate their technological and ideological superiority. In 1957, the Soviet Union scored a significant victory by launching Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite. This marked the beginning of a human adventure in outer space exploration. The event sent shockwaves across the United States and galvanized its efforts in space technology. In 1958, the United States formed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for research and development in space technology. When, in 1961, the Soviet Union successfully launched Yuri Gagarin, the first human into space, the rivalry between the two superpowers in space intensified even further.
Since its inception, NASA has harbored ambitions to send humans into space and return them safely to Earth. Project Mercury was launched. Under Project Mercury, six missions were carried out between 1961 and 1963, culminating in the flight of astronaut John Glenn, who became the first American to orbit the Earth. The Gemini Project followed, with ten missions between 1965 and 1966, focused on testing the technology and procedures necessary for lunar missions. President John F. Kennedy, in a speech to Congress on May 25, 1961, formally announced his vision of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth. He declared: “I believe this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before the end of this decade, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth.” Then, the Apollo program was launched, and in 1969, the United States successfully sent the first manned mission to the Moon with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, who were the first humans to walk on the lunar surface. Despite initial success in space, the Soviet Union never sent humans to the Moon due to a combination of technical, financial and geopolitical factors.
The Apollo program comprised a series of missions, each with specific objectives and milestones. These missions can be broadly categorized into three types:
Apollo Command/Service Module (CSM) missions : These missions included crewed spacecraft that orbited the Moon without landing. The main objectives were to test the spacecraft and collect lunar data from orbit.
Apollo Lunar Module (LM) Missions : These were manned missions to the Moon, allowing astronauts to land and explore the lunar surface. In each of these missions, a lunar module was carried by the spacecraft to land the astronauts on the lunar surface and let them return safely to Earth.
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) : A joint mission with the Soviet Union in 1975 that marked the end of the Apollo program.
Apollo 1
Originally designated AS-204, this was the first mission scheduled to be a manned spaceflight. The mission ended tragically when a cabin fire broke out during a pre-launch test on January 27, 1967, resulting in the deaths of astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. The fire ignited during the shutdown test due to a short -circuit or electrical failure. The command module was filled with high-pressure oxygen in preparation for launch, which increased the flammability of the spacecraft's materials. Due to the hatch's design and mechanisms, the astronauts were unable to quickly open the spacecraft door and escape. Due to the high atmospheric pressure inside the spacecraft, there was a communication problem that further hampered the rescue operation. The loss of life in the accident is mainly attributed to the lack of safety measures and the design of the spacecraft. Like, the astronaut's suits were not fire resistant and contributed to the rapid spread of the flames. The mission was later renamed Apollo 1 in honor of the astronauts who lost their lives in the accident.
Apollo 4
Officially designated AS-504, this mission was launched on November 9, 1967. It was an uncrewed test flight of the Saturn V rocket and the Apollo Command/Service Module (CSM). The main objective of the mission was to test the performance of the launch vehicle.
Apollo 5
Apollo 5, the mission designated AS-204 was launched on January 22, 1968. It was an unmanned mission testing the lunar module in Earth orbit to examine its ability to operate in space.
Apollo 6
Designated AS-502, this mission launched on April 4, 1968. It was another uncrewed mission to perform a final test flight of the Saturn V launch vehicle and the Apollo Command/Service Module. The mission experienced several technical problems, but proved to be a valuable learning experience.
Apollo 7
This was the first manned Apollo mission carried out between October 11 and 22, 1968. It orbited the Earth and tested the capabilities of the command/service module. This mission was critical to gaining confidence in the spacecraft and preparing its path to the Moon.
Apollo 8
This was the first manned mission to lunar orbit. Astronauts Frank Borman, James Lovell and William Anders circled the Moon ten times and provided iconic photographs of the birth of the Earth from lunar orbit. However, the mission did not land on the Moon and returned to Earth after orbiting the Moon. The mission was carried out between December 21 and 27, 1968.
Apollo 9
Apollo 9 aimed to test the lunar module in Earth orbit, such as docking and undocking maneuvers with the command/service module. The test mission was carried out between March 3 and 13, 1969.
Apollo 10
This mission is often called the 'Dress Rehearsal' for the Moon landing. The mission carried out between May 18 and 26, 1969 launched a spacecraft into lunar orbit 15.6 km from the lunar surface, but did not land.
Apollo 11
This was the iconic mission that landed a man on the Moon for the first time. Astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first human to walk on the Moon on July 20, 1969, at 8:17 pm UTC. He was joined by Buzz Aldrin 19 minutes later as Michael Collins orbited above. The entire mission was conducted between July 16 and 24, 1969, and demonstrated the safe landing and return of humans from the lunar surface. “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for humanity.” were the historic words of Neil Armstrong as he became the first human to set foot on the lunar surface.
Apollo 12
This was a second manned mission to the lunar surface conducted between November 14 and 24, 1969. Commander Charles 'Pete' Conrad and lunar module pilot Alan L. Bean landed on the moon and performed two moonwalks. Command module pilot Richard F. Gordon remained in orbit.
Apollo 13
Often referred to as a “failure,” Apollo 13 is a story of overcoming adversity in space exploration. Launched on April 11, 1970, the mission suffered an accident shortly after approximately 56 hours on the way to the Moon. The spacecraft with astronauts James A. Lovell Jr., John L. Swigert Jr. and Fred W. Haise Jr. a board suffered a catastrophic failure in one of the spacecraft's oxygen tanks. This resulted in loss of electrical power, loss of cabin heat and a significant reduction in life support systems. Given the severity of the situation, NASA immediately aborted the mission and instead executed a free return trajectory that would take the spacecraft around the Moon and back to Earth without entering lunar orbit.
The Apollo 13 crew, with the cooperation of ground control in Houston, Texas, improvised solutions to conserve energy, stabilize the spacecraft's systems, and ensure a safe return to Earth. The crew survived in the Lunar Module (LM), Aquarius, which was designed for lunar landing but was adapted to serve as a life raft. They used the Lunar Module's descent engine to perform critical course corrections. On April 17, 1970, the crew successfully reentered the Earth's atmosphere and the command module crashed safely into the Pacific Ocean. All three astronauts were recovered by the USS Iwo Jima.
Although Apollo 13 failed to land on the Moon, it demonstrated the resilience and adaptability of NASA's space program. The mission continues to be a remarkable example of problem solving, quick thinking and teamwork to overcome adversity in space exploration. It also led to a comprehensive review of spacecraft safety systems and protocols, leading to improvements in subsequent Apollo missions.
Apollo 14
This was the third manned mission to land on the moon. Astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell conducted two moonwalks, including a round of golf, while command module pilot Stuart A. Roosa remained in orbit. The mission was carried out between January 31 and February 9, 1971.
Apollo 15
The fourth manned mission to successfully land on the Moon, Apollo 15, was conducted between July 26 and August 7, 1971. Astronauts David R. Scott and James B. Irwin conducted three lunar walks and drove the Lunar Roving Vehicle ( lunar buggy) for long periods. exploration. Command module pilot Alfred M. Worden remained in orbit.
Apollo 16
Apollo 16 was the fifth manned mission to land on the lunar surface. Astronauts John W. Young and Charles M. Duke explored the lunar highlands and conducted three moonwalks while Thomas K. Mattingly took control of the command module. The mission was carried out between April 16 and 27, 1972.
Apollo 17
This was the last Apollo lunar mission that landed a human crew on the lunar surface. Astronauts Eugene A. Cernan and Harrison H. Schmitt landed on the moon and performed a series of scientific experiments along with exploring the lunar surface in a spacecraft. Ronald E. Evans remained in command of the command module.
Apollo-Soyuz test project
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was the first joint spaceflight between the United States and the Soviet Union launched in 1975. The mission symbolized the thaw in the Cold War space race and paved the way for international cooperation in space, leading to the development of the International Space Station (ISS) in the future. The main objective of the ASTP was to test the compatibility of spacecraft systems from different countries. The American Apollo spacecraft was launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida on July 15, 1975, and the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. The two spacecraft successfully docked in orbit on July 17, marking a significant achievement in space technology.
A series of scientific experiments, including Earth observations and biomedical studies, were conducted during the mission. Crew members Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand and Donald K. “Deke” Slayton from the United States returned safely by landing in the Pacific Ocean, while Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov from the Soviet Union landed on Soviet territory after successful joint activities for 44 hours in space.
Why the Apollo missions were discontinued
The time when the Apollo missions were conducted was a golden age for space science and research. It was the first time that humans explored some other celestial body and experienced travel, life and rescue in space. After Apollo 17, the United States halted the program for several reasons.
The Apollo program was incredibly expensive. It consumed a significant portion of NASA's global budget, leaving fewer resources for other space exploration and scientific experiments. After six successful manned missions to the Moon, public interest in lunar missions began to wane. This decline in public enthusiasm made it difficult to justify the high costs of continuing the program. The Apollo missions, while incredibly successful, also demonstrated the challenges and risks of manned space exploration. Apollo 13 highlighted the dangers inherent in human spaceflight.
By the time of Apollo 17 in 1972, most of the program's scientific objectives had been achieved. The lunar samples, experiments and data collected during the missions have provided valuable information about the geology, history and formation of the Moon. So now NASA's focus has shifted to exploring Mars and other celestial bodies in the solar system. Since nothing profound was discovered on the Moon, the continuation of lunar missions, specifically manned missions to the Moon, was almost pointless. NASA has slowly moved toward unmanned missions to other celestial bodies to advance scientific knowledge about the solar system and deep space.
Geopolitical reasons, such as the rising costs of the Vietnam War and national social programs, also led to a reassessment of national priorities, with some arguing that the money spent on Apollo could be better used elsewhere. Even after the magnificent success of the United States' Apollo program, the Soviet Union never sent any manned missions to the Moon. No other nation at that time was so developed to enter the space race. Many nations had just gained independence from the British Empire in the 1950s. If they had any space programs, they were driven by the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union or were adopted following development needs for the potential use of technology. space in telecommunications, weather forecasting, agriculture and resource management. . The space race was almost over. Instead, an era of international cooperation in space technology and exploration began.
Why a new space race to the moon?
In 1998, NASA's Lunar Prospector mission provided strong evidence of the presence of water ice on the Moon. The Lunar Prospector spacecraft carried a neutron spectrometer instrument designed to detect hydrogen, a key component of water, in the form of water ice. This instrument detected high levels of hydrogen at the lunar poles, suggesting the presence of water ice in permanently shadowed regions within polar craters. Sunlight never reaches these craters. That's why these craters are extremely cold and are thought to hold water ice that could have been deposited by comets or other sources over billions of years.
Later, other lunar missions such as China National Space Administration's (CNSA) Chang'e 4 and Indian Space Research Organization's (ISRO) Chandrayaan-1 further discovered evidence of lunar water ice, specifically at the moon's south pole. Since evidence of water ice was collected at the lunar south pole, a new space race has begun. The Moon is now seen as a potential gateway for manned space missions into deep space, where spacecraft could dock with the Moon to refuel, store water and other resources for human spaceflights to other celestial bodies in the solar system. Furthermore, space tourism has a whole new potential due to emerging and profitable space engineering.
This will be a race again. As in the past, an emerging new cold war has once again obscured the potential of human space exploration. Although democratic nations like the United States, India and Japan have agreed to international cooperation in lunar exploration under the Artemis Accord, communist nations like Russia and China are unlikely to join the team. In a new multipolar world, only time will tell whether democracies or communists will take the lead in the new space race.